T.O.K. Essay: Senior Year High School

26 February 2010

9. Discuss the claim that some areas of knowledge are discovered and others are invented.

Throughout my course of study in Theory of Knowledge, I have discussed and reflected on many aspects of the areas of knowledge as well as knowledge issues that coincide with each area. To effectively discuss this essay topic, I will give supporting arguments to the invention and discovery of three areas of knowledge as well as including pertinent examples to each. In relation to this essay topic, it is important to distinguish between discovery and invention because they sometimes are used interchangeably. The term ‘discovered’ references that the perspective was already present before it was given the title of knowledge. Thus, it existed before it was learned. Also, the term ‘invented’ references that the perspective was not present before it was considered knowledge and was constructed by humans. In this T.O.K. Essay, I will discuss supporting and contrasting arguments to the claims that the areas of knowledge including Human Sciences, History, and the Arts are seen as both discovered and invented.

The claim that Human Sciences is a discovered area of knowledge is a valid argument and is justified by philosophers from ancient Greece. In the beginning of I.B. Psychology my junior year, we covered the history of psychology and its foundations. Three founders of this study include Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle. Around 347 B.C., Plato, a student of Socrates, began his studies by focusing on the quote “Know thyself.” Socrates suggested that through introspection, we can learn a great deal about ourselves. Around this same time period, Aristotle coined the term associationism in which he explained that experiences remind us of similar experiences in the past (Rathus 12).

In order to explicitly argue that this area of knowledge is discovered is further justified by the ancient Greek belief that psychological problems were attributed to punishment by the gods for wrongdoing. This belief and Socrates’ method of introspection can arguably define this area of knowledge as discovered because it is believed to have existed before it was knowledge. By carefully examining our thoughts and feelings, we examine what is already there. Also, the ancient Greek belief that psychological problems were directly associated with the gods is a valid claim for their belief system. They viewed psychological problems as creations by gods and not man-made. Therefore, the ancient Greeks discovered this area of knowledge.

Several ways of knowing were practiced by the ancient Greek philosophers and the ways are still used by psychologists today. The ancient Greeks used two ways of knowing: Personal knowledge by introspection and personal knowledge by conviction. These ways of knowing create knowledge issues within this field of study. For example, the belief and faith in punishment by the gods creates a biased belief. Hippocrates suggested that the psychological problems were not punishment by the gods but rather abnormalities of the brain (Rathus 12). The religious beliefs during this time were influential to the theories made by those exposed to the situation.

As modern psychology took a stronghold, many behavioral scientists took leading roles in their specific area of study. An example is Ivan Pavlov and his classical conditioning experiment involving a dog, meat powder, and a bell. Through his experiment he was capable of manipulating a dog to salivate while being exposed to meat powder and the ringing of a bell. Through classical conditioning, Pavlov manipulated the dog to salivate while a bell is rung in the absence of meat powder. Through conditioning, Pavlov manipulated the dog to produce a certain response. This example supports the claim that this area of knowledge is invented because this action was not produced naturally but rather it was invented by Ivan Pavlov himself.

One prominent way of knowing in this area of knowledge is the impersonal, propositional way of knowing through empirical studies. These studies are open to testing by the justified true belief and are considered to be justifiably true (Woolman 21). The prominent knowledge issue with empirical studies is that they most commonly use the scientific method which has its roots in logic. Inductive logic is used to create the theory then deductive logic is applied which creates explanations and predictions based on the theory. The problem with induction is that it does not give certainty (Woolman 111).

The claim that History is a discovered area of knowledge is justified by my personal experience of Earth Science in eighth grade. Although the example is scientific, it relates to History by pertaining to the geography of the Earth. In this class I learned that long ago, glaciers once existed in the area in which I live. This justifies the claim that History is discovered because the history of the Earth existed before humans gained the knowledge that large ice formations once spanned the continent. This is a very broad example because it does not delve into thorough detail of history of the Earth but it does give a broad justification to the claim that this area of knowledge is discovered. A knowledge issue pertaining to this example is my personal knowledge by belief and my impersonal propositional knowledge by authority (Woolman 12).

Through personal bias, humans tend to reconstruct facts to fit a certain belief system. Two examples of this claim include the use of primary and secondary sources as truth and the way history is reconstructed from one generation to the next. History is often reconstructed through the use of primary and secondary sources. By using these types of sources, the facts they give are often biased and do not represent the opposing viewpoint. An example of this is studying the impact the Vietnam War had on politics during the late 1960’s and early 70’s. An interview of a soldier who fought in Vietnam who had a personal bias against war would generally have a more negative outlook of the conflict than someone who had no knowledge of it. This is an assumption but from a knower’s perspective it is a valid assumption to make. If the interview is then used for a published book primarily focusing on the Vietnam War, it is predisposed to one conception. Also, historians collect facts from multiple sources in which they add to a bias. Therefore, history is each generation’s reconstruction of the past and is invented because it is constructed entirely by humans (Woolman 178).

Lastly, the claim that the Arts are a discovered area of knowledge is validated by my personal experience of art in general. I have grown up in a home with paintings of every size and my father being active in reconstructing the old master’s techniques in oil painting. With lifetime exposure to art and studying the area of the Arts in T.O.K., I began to question the foundations of art and its initial discovery. I consider this area to be discovered because art existed before it was learned by humans. For example, this winter, a layer of snow covered every angle of a tree near the side of the road. The snow was not created by humans or manipulated by humans in any way. This was a very beautiful prospect and something I would consider to be art created by nature. A knowledge issue that pertains to this assertion is that art was not created with the intent to be art. This issue leads to the difficulty of calling art knowledge if it is not seen. If I had not seen this picturesque tree, it can be justified that the tree would not have been given the knowledge of art.

Along with the claim of discovery, I also believe the Arts are an invention by humans. An example of this is my current hobby of railroad photography. In this hobby I photograph trains which evoke a powerful feeling and recreate this feeling through capturing it in a photograph. Many different influences evoke this powerful feeling; the brightness of the sun and physical characteristics of the surrounding area. This feeling is transmitted through my photographs and recreates the feeling I experienced with other railroad photographers. The railroad, invented by humans, evokes this powerful feeling and is therefore invented by humans. Knowledge through this is also invented because it involves my portrayal of an emotion I often feel in my photography.

One knowledge issue associated with the arts and in particularly my photography is the nature of my photos. There is no cross-cultural standard that defines a concept of beauty, so beauty, in this sense, is in the eyes of the beholder. One may clearly see the feeling behind my photography while others, based on the subject matter and personal preference, may not. This is true for any piece of Art. Some may not consider something to be art when another may see it is. This is an issue because, to some, the Arts are not considered an area of knowledge.
In conclusion, by discussing the claims that the areas of knowledge including Human Sciences, History, and the Arts are both discovered and invented, I was able to open my mind to seeing these areas of knowledge from both perspectives. By doing so, I had to give unbiased personal perspectives while maintaining a focus on T.O.K. theory. Through formulations of arguments I was able to critically reflect on ways of knowing and develop limitations to each claim with the intention of giving a balanced view. To summarize this T.O.K. prescribed title, each of the three areas of knowledge can justifiably be considered discovered or invented if thoroughly conveyed with supporting evidence.

References

Rathus, Spencer A. Psychology: Principles in Practice. Austin: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 2007.


Woolman, Michael. Ways of Knowing: An Introduction to Theory of Knowledge. Victoria: IBID Press, 2000.